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MARIA DOMENICA MAZZARELLO
AND THE QUESTION OF LITERACY
Edna Mary Mac Donald
Introduction
There are many influences which affected Maria Domenica Mazzarello’s
(1837-1881) learning and experience: the socioeconomic class she was born
into: a hardworking Italian farming community; the politico-religious climate
of her time – Italy’s restless years between Church and State and its own polit-
ical risorgimento; the eldest of 10 children (7 survived to adulthood); her vivac-
ious and resolute character with its inclinations, passions, emotions, desires and
intellectual stimuli; the picturesque surroundings of her neighbourhood;
the severe illness she contracted as a young adult; the impact of her education
upon the education of others; the influence of both females and males in her
life: her friendship with her closest friend Petronilla Mazzarello (no relation),
the women of both the Pious Union of the Daughters of Mary Immaculate
(PUDMI) and the Institute of the Daughters of Mary Help of Christians
(IDMHC), the influence of her parents, the local and diocesan clergy together
with the Salesian Fathers and Brothers. All of the above point to the fact that
these influences make up the unique traits and characteristics of Maria Domeni-
ca Mazzarello. Her specific uniqueness is our most precious endowment.
Academic studies, in greater and lesser degree, have addressed some of
the above influences in relation to the figure of Maria. Some of the extensive
works centre on the relationship between Maria Mazzarello and Don Bosco 1;
1 Joseph AUBRY (a cura di), Fondatore e confondatrice, Don Bosco e Maria Domenica
Mazzarello, in Rinnovare la nostra vita salesiana. II. Leumann (Torino), LDC 1981, pp. 127-
143; Maria BORSI-Piera CAVAGLIÀ, La relazione di don Bosco con le donne secondo alcuni con-
tributi storico-biografici, in Rivista di Scienze dell’Educazione 29 (1991) 1, 17-46; Anita
DELEIDI, Il rapporto tra Don Bosco e Madre Mazzarello nella fondazione dell’Istituto FMA
(1862-1876), in Don Bosco fondatore della Famiglia Salesiana, a cura di Mario Midali. Roma,
S.D.B. 1989, pp. 305-321; Maria Esther POSADA, Don Bosco Fondatore dell’Istituto delle
Figlie di Maria Ausiliatrice, in Don Bosco fondatore della famiglia Salesiana, a cura di Mario
Midali. Roma, S.D.B. 1989, pp. 281-303; Egidio VIGANÒ, Rediscovering the Spirit of Mornese.
Letter of the Rector Major Father Egidio Viganò on the occasion of the centenary of the death

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308 Edna Mary Mac Donald
her interaction with Salesians 2, Fr. Domenico Pestarino 3, Fr. Giuseppe
Frassinetti 4; Maria’s contribution to the Salesian charism 5 and to Christian
education 6; the implications of “the feminine question” and the spirituality and
educative style of Maria Mazzarello 7; studies relating to Maria’s own human
of Saint Mary Domenica Mazzarello, in Acts of the Superior Council. 24 February. Rome,
S.D.B. 1981, pp. 1-71.
2 Enrica ROSANNA, Un messaggio che viene da lontano: le lettere di Madre Mazzarello
ai Salesiani, in Attuale perché vera: Contributi su S. Maria Domenica Mazzarello, a cura di
Maria Esther Posada. Roma, LAS 1987, pp. 99-106.
3 Adolfo L’ARCO, Don Domenico Pestarino in orbita tra due astri. Torino, LDC 1980.
Fr Domenico Pestarino (1817-1874), a native of Mornese, was ordained in Genoa on 21 No-
vember, 1839. He remained in the seminary as Prefect and returned to Mornese as curate to the
parish priest till his death. Having met Don Bosco in 1862, he became a Salesian and con-
tinued his ministry in the parish of Mornese. He became the first spiritual director of the
Daughters of Mary Help of Christians. Maria’s acquaintance with Pestarino began in her
preadolescent years and continued until his death.
4 M.E. POSADA, Storia e santità: Influsso del teologo Giuseppe Frassinetti sulla spiritua-
lità di S. Maria Domenica Mazzarello. Roma, LAS 1992. Paolo Giuseppe Maria Frassinetti (1804-
1868) was the first of 10 children of whom five survived to adulthood. The four boys became
priests and the girl, Paola, the founder of a religious congregation of women, the Sisters of St.
Dorothy. Known as the “pastor of souls”, Frassinetti lived most of his life in Genoa ministering to
the spiritual and cultural formation of the clergy and laity as pastor, writer, founder of associations
and a religious congregation, preacher, confessor and spiritual director. In 1827 he established a
congregation for the formation of the clergy, Congregazione del Beato Leonardo di Porto Maur-
izio which was suppressed in 1843. In 1848-9, having taken a stance in his literary works against
Jansenism, he was forced into exile for the year. During this period he read extensively and stud-
ied the works of Teresa of Avila (1515-1582) and John of the Cross (1542-1591) writing spiritual
treatises based on their teachings. In his work of founding a variety of associations, one became a
religious institute for men in 1860 entitled, Figli di S. Maria, which is still active today. In a span
of thirty years he profusely published short works for devotional reading and more extensive aca-
demic publications for the instruction of the clergy, most notably, The Compendium of the Moral
Theology of St. Alphonsus Maria de Liguori. Maria met Frassinetti on his visits to Mornese to see
Pestarino, a close friend of his, and as extraordinary confessor to the PUDMI.
5 Luigi CÀSTANO, Madre Mazzarello: Santa e confondatrice delle Figlie di Maria Ausi-
liatrice. Leumann (Torino), LDC 1981; Carlo COLLI, Madre Mazzarello Confondatrice, in
Patto della nostra alleanza con Dio. Roma, Istituto FMA 1984, pp. 35-51; ID., The Spirit of
Mornese. New Rochelle, Don Bosco Publications 1982; Mario MIDALI, Madre Mazzarello: Il
significato del titolo di Confondatrice. Roma, LAS 1982.
6 Maria Angela BISSOLA, Santa Maria Domenica Mazzarello: le note caratteristiche del-
la sua opera di formatrice, in La maestra delle novizie di fronte alle nuove istanze formative, a
cura di Enrica Rosanna-Giuseppina Niro. Roma, LAS 1995, pp. 193-206; P. CAVAGLIÀ, La
riscoperta di un volto: un’educatrice e una maestra di vita, in La sapienza della vita: Lettere di
Maria Domenica Mazzarello, a cura di M. E. Posada, A. Costa, P. Cavaglià. Torino, Società Edi-
trice Internazionle 1994, pp. 24-32; ID., Fecondità e provocazione di un’esperienza educativa, in
Rivista di Scienze dell’Educazione 30 (1992) 2, 171-197; A. DELEIDI, Alcune premesse per uno
studio su S. Maria Domenica Mazzarello educatrice, in Rivista di Scienze dell’Educazione 19
(1981) 215-228; Gabriella SCARPA, Dall’ambiente educativo di Valdocco e di Mornese sorge
l’associazionismo giovanile salesiano, in Da Mihi Animas 27 (1980) 20, 571-578.
7 P. CAVAGLIÀ, L’eredità educativa di S. Maria Domenica Mazzarello, in 1° Congresso
mondiale degli exallievi ed exallieve di Don Bosco e delle Figlie di Maria Ausiliatrice, Atti e

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Maria Domenica Mazzarello and the question of literacy 309
and Christian journey 8. One aspect of her early education which has not been
investigated thoroughly and which has implications when examining Maria
Mazzarello’s spirituality through her correspondence is the learning she exper-
ienced through reading. This is the focus of my approach in this paper.
documenti. Roma - 3/9 Novembre 1988, a cura di Charles Cini, Tommaso Natale, Teresita Osio,
Angiola Maria Bompard e Laura Benedettini. Roma, Editrice VELAR S.p.A., Gorle (Bergamo)
1991, pp. 131-144; ID., Educazione e cultura per la donna: La scuola “Nostra Signora delle
Grazie” di Nizza Monferrato dalle origini alla riforma Gentile (1878-1923). Roma, LAS
1990; ID., La scuola di Mornese: alle origini di una scelta per la promozione integrale della
donna, in Rivista di Scienze dell’Educazione 26 (1988) 2, 151-186; Ornella CONFESSORE, La
proposta spirituale di Maria Domenica Mazzarello, in Rivista di Scienze dell’Educazione 34
(1996) 2, 188-196; Maria Grazia FASOLI, “Questa è la mia lettera al mondo”, in Rivista di
Scienze dell’Educazione 34 (1996) 2, 202-206; Matilda PARENTE, Per una pedagogia dell’in-
coraggiamento, in Rivista di Scienze dell’Educazione 34 (1996) 2, 197-201; Caterina Verga
GUARNA, L’identità femminile e l’attualità di Maria Domenica Mazzarello, in Rivista di
Scienze dell’Educazione 34 (1996) 2, 207-212; Rosella Annalisa MILLETTI, Vivere i valori al
femminile: Maria Domenica Mazzarello, donna del suo tempo, donna d’oggi, in Rivista di
Scienze dell’Educazione 32 (1994) 2, 182-185; Franca ZITO, S. Maria Domenica Mazzarello:
Una vocazione pienamente femminile a servizio della dignità della donna, in Rivista di vita
spirituale 44 (1990) 6, 640-654.
8 Domenico AGASSO, La passione di spendere con gioia la vita per “qualcuno”: Maria
Domenica Mazzarello, in Rivista di Scienze dell’Educazione 32 (1994) 2, 178-182; Carla BAR-
BERI, La pratica della religione popolare in Santa Maria D. Mazzarello, in Religiosità popo-
lare a misura dei giovani, a cura di Cosimo Semeraro. Leumann (Torino), LDC 1987, pp. 123-
137; Anna COSTA-P. CAVAGLIÀ, Criteri di edizione delle lettere, in La sapienza della vita: Let-
tere di Maria Domenica Mazzarello, a cura di M. E. Posada, A. Costa, P. Cavaglià. Torino, SEI
1994, pp. 47-55; P. CAVAGLÌA-Isabel Madrid CISNEROS, Tratti della personalità di Maria
Domenica Mazzarello emergenti dall’Epistolario, in Rivista di Scienze dell’Educazione 34
(1996) 2, 213-245; A. DELEIDI, Maria Domenica Mazzarello: maestra di vita con la vita, in La
maestra delle novizie di fronte alle nuove istanze formative, a cura di Enrica Rosanna—
Giuseppina Niro. Roma, LAS 1995, pp. 21-30; ID., Maria Domenica Mazzarello: Una vita ed
un’unica passione, Dio nel volto di ogni giovane. Itinerario storico-biografico, in Rivista di
Scienze dell’Educazione 32 (1994) 2, 170-177; Giulia Paola DI NICOLA, La Mazzarello e i
paradossi della santità, in La sapienza della vita: Lettere di Maria Domenica Mazzarello, a
cura di M. E. Posada, A. Costa, P. Cavaglià. Torino, SEI 1994, pp. 33-46; Gabriel-Marie GAR-
RONE, Come limpida sorgente, in La sapienza della vita: Lettere di Maria Domenica Maz-
zarello, a cura di M. E. Posada, A. Costa, P. Cavaglià. Torino, SEI 1994, pp. 11-14; Maria Pia
GIUDICI, Linee bibliche dell’epistolario, in La sapienza della vita: Lettere di Maria Domenica
Mazzarello, a cura di M. E. Posada, A. Costa, P. Cavaglià. Torino, SEI 1994, pp. 15-23; Maria
KO, Fondamento biblico-teologico dei temi principali della spiritualità di S. Maria D. Maz-
zarello, in Sulle orme di madre Mazzarello donna sapiente, a cura di Anita Deleidi-Maria Ko.
Roma, Istituto Figlie di Maria Ausiliatrice 1988, pp. 75-159; Alosis KOTHGASSER, The Little
Window of the Valponasca. New Rochelle, Don Bosco Publications 1982; Giacomo Maria
MEDICA, Santa Maria Domenica Mazzarello: Catechesi per una gioiosa vita cristiana, in
Grandi Catechisti: Dai catechisti del passato, Orientamenti per la spiritualità e stimoli per
l’azione. Leumann (Torino), LDC 1989, pp. 237-245; M. E. POSADA, Introduzione, in Sapienza
della vita: Lettere di Maria Domenica Mazzarello, a cura di M. E. Posada, A. Costa, P.
Cavaglià. Torino, SEI 1994, pp. 3-10; Gertrud STICKLER, Personalità religiosa e discernimento
del vissuto patologico: Sapere “prescientifico” e scientifico a confronto, in Attuale perché
vera: Contributi su S. Maria Domenica Mazzarello. Roma, LAS 1987, pp. 177-195; Egidio VI-

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310 Edna Mary Mac Donald
1. Basic literary skills in pursuit of human and christian advancement
The movement for the educational advancement of Italian women in
both Church and State institutions occurred at a much slower pace than in
other European countries.9 Italian unification was supposed to have initiated
immediate social improvement but a strong national identity was lacking.10
Women’s education, like many other changes, was linked with the general re-
tardation of those reforms.
1.1 A shift in interpretation
Maria’s childhood transpired during the preunification era. Mornese had
no school at that time for girls. Less well-to-do girls, like Maria, could not af-
ford to go to the city or pay for private lessons. Biographers of the last eight-
eenth and early nineteenth century 11 do not emphasise the fact that while ed-
ucation was denied Maria at an early age because of her sex and social class,
she gradually acquired some literary skills particularly that of reading. Gio-
vanni Battista Lemoyne, who collaborated with Maria during the last years of
her life, amassed enough information to write five consecutive articles in 1881
and 1882 in the official Salesian magazine, il Bollettino Salesiano. He makes
no reference to Maria learning to read in her youth.12 Alberto Caviglia states
that Maria only learnt the rudiments of reading paralleling her to Catherine of
Siena,”Come Caterina da Siena: santa senza libri e fuori dei libri”.13 Giusep-
GANÒ, Radicate nella speranza: Esercizi spirituali predicati dal Rettor Maggiore alle novizie
dei noviziati d’Italia, Salesianum, 24/31-7-1993. Roma, Istituto Figlie di Maria Ausiliatrice
1994; Maria Cristiana VILLEGAS, Speranza e ottimismo in Madre Mazzarello, in Atti della XVII
settimana di spiritualità della famiglia salesiana. I sentieri della speranza nella spiritualità
salesiana. Rendere ragione della gioia e degli impegni della speranza testimoniando le inson-
dabili ricchezze di Cristo. Roma, S.D.B. 1994, pp. 171-178.
9 Simonetta SOLDANI, Scuole femminili per il lavoro, in Le donne a scuola: L’edu-
cazione femminile nell’Italia dell’Ottocento, a cura di Ilaria Porciani. Firenze, Sedicesimo
1987, p. 159; Marino RAICICH, Verso la cultura superiore e le professioni, in Le donne a
scuola: L’educazione femminile nell’Italia dell’Ottocento, a cura di Ilaria Porciani. Firenze,
Sedicesimo 1987, p. 191.
10 Donna GABACCIA, In the Shadows of the Periphery: Italian Women in the Nineteenth
Century, in Connecting Spheres: Women in the Western World 1500 to the Present. Edited by
Marilyn J. Boxer and Jean H. Quataert. New York, Oxford University Press 1987, p. 167.
11 Giovanni Battista LEMOYNE, Suor Maria Mazzarello, in “Bollettino Salesiano” 5
(1881a) 9, 11-13. ID, Suor Maria Mazzarello, in BS 5 (1881b) 10, 6-8. ID, Suor Maria
Mazzarello, in BS 5 (1881c) 12, 15-17; Alberto CAVIGLIA, Beata Maria Mazzarello. Torino,
SEI 1938; Giuseppina MAINETTI, La prima discepola di San Giovanni Bosco: Beata Maria
Mazzarello. Torino, SEI 1938.
12 G.B. LEMOYNE, Suor Maria Mazzarello… (1881a) 11-13.
13 A. CAVIGLIA, Beata Maria Mazzarello… p. 9.

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Maria Domenica Mazzarello and the question of literacy 311
pina Mainetti attributes Maria Mazzarello’s growth in Christian perfection not
to her reading voluminous books or listening to brilliant sermons on the love of
God but from her sole knowledge of the catechism and simple words from her
parish priest and confessor.14
It is not until the second half of this century that biographers highlight
Maria’s ability to read as one of the key means of her own human and Chris-
tian development.15 From my research to date I have not located any academic
studies which locate and analyse all the known texts Maria read. It is my in-
tention in this paper to name these texts. The examination of each work and its
correlation to the correspondence of Maria Mazzarello is subject matter for
further inquiries. The findings of this present investigation will not uncover all
the literary sources Maria read but will indicate the major authors she consult-
ed with and indicate the orientations which shaped some of her thinking
demonstrable throughout her correspondence. To determine how Maria gradu-
ally conquered proficiency in reading, discover with whom she shared the lit-
erature and investigate what she actually read, I draw on the sources from the
documentation of Maria Mazzarello’s beatification and canonisation process in
the Catholic Church, the summarium 16; the Chronicles of the Institute of the
Daughters of Mary Help of Christians (CIDMHC) edited by Giselda Capetti 17;
and key biographies particularly those written during the twentieth century.
14 G. MAINETTI, La prima discepola di San Giovanni Bosco… p. 38.
15 D. AGASSO, Maria Mazzarello: Il comandamento della gioia. Torino, SEI 1993, pp.
15,25; M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All Time: Saint Maria Domenica Mazzarello (1837-1881).
Rome 1981, p. 29; L. CASTANO, Madre Mazzarello: Santa e confondatrice delle Figlie di
Maria Ausiliatrice. Leumann (Torino), LDC 1981, p. 27.
16 Out of the numerous texts that can be analysed in relation to Maria Mazzarello’s
process of canonisation I have selected the volume positio super virtutibus, focusing on the
summarium, officially decreed on 23 December, 1932 by The Sacred Congregation of Rites
and published in 1934. The accumulation of data for such a publication began in 1911 when
the bishop in the diocese where Maria died introduced her cause for canonization. The format
of this particular document opens with witnesses declaring that they had been acquainted with
Maria Mazzarello over a certain period of time. In 1911 and through to the mid 1920s there
were people still alive who personally knew her. This initial disclosure is followed by the wit-
nesses’ recollections of Maria’s parental background and childhood; the affirmation of the
heroicity of her virtues; the testimony of any extraordinary manifestations Maria might have
shown; the acknowledgement of her death and burial, that fame of her sanctity in life and after
death and finally the disclosure of graces and miracles obtained through her intercession.
17 On 19 August, 1884, at one of the meetings of the first General Chapter of the Daughters
of Mary Help of Christians, it was suggested that the chronicles of the Institute be written. This did
not occur until the 1920s and the gathering of information spanned two decades, 1922-42. From
1974 to 1978 five volumes were published by Giselda Capetti, the then archivist of the IDMHC.
Clelia Genghini prepared the first three volumes and the material for the fourth; Capetti complet-
ed the fourth and wrote the fifth. Posada asserts that this document is generally reliable and repre-
sents the most vast collection of material regarding the origins and development of the IDMHC.

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312 Edna Mary Mac Donald
1.2 The art of reading: how, to whom, for what purpose
The initial acquisition of the art of reading was first taught to her by her
father during the long, cold winter months at the Valponasca when farm work
was less demanding.18 As she assisted her mother in rearing her younger
brothers and sisters, Maria would “relate to them what she had heard in
church or read in spiritual books”.19 In the quiet of the evenings when the
family chores were completed and the others had gone to bed, Maria would
“remain a little longer in prayer and spiritual reading”.20 As a preadolescent
she and her close friend Petronilla Mazzarello received a book as a prize from
Fr. Domenico Pestarino (1817-1874), the parish curate, for learning the cate-
chism. It was handed to Petronilla. Turning to Maria she said, “It is a pity to
split it [the book] in half. Let us read a little each”.21 Ferdinand Maccono
records that Maria used to study the catechism on the way to and from
church.22 When in the fields each day helping her father, rest periods were al-
located to the workers. During these moments Maria would go off by herself
and either pray or read some ascetical books.23 Pestarino obtained many
pamphlets and leaflets from his friends in Genoa and would distribute them
among those he considered the more devout in the Parish. Maria was one of
the recipients of such literature.24 Maccono relates that when Maria read a
prayer or a passage from a book that appealed to her “she would read
expressively while others listened”.25 When stricken with typhoid at the age
of twenty-three and a long convalescence was needed, “there was plenty of
time to devote to reading”.26
Once she joined the PUDMI 27, the reading of ascetical books became
18 Giselda CAPETTI (a cura di), Cronistoria: Chronicles of the Institute of the Daughters of
Mary Help of Christians. 5 vols. Translated. New Rochelle, Don Bosco Publications 1981, I, p.
23; Eugenio CERIA, Santa Maria Domenica Mazzarello: Confondatrice dell’Istituto delle Figlie
di Maria Ausiliatrice. 2a edizione Torino, SEI 1952, p. 7.
19 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 37.
20 Ibid. p. 44.
21 Ibid. p. 22.
22 Ferdinand MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello: Co-Foundress and First Superior of
the Daughters of Mary Help of Christians. 2 vols. 2nd edition. Translated by Catherine Hurley
1980 [1934], I, p. 11.
23 SACRA RITUUM CONGREGATIONE. Aquen. Beatificationis ed Canonizationis Servae Dei
Mariae Dominicae Mazzarello, Primae Antistitae Instituti Filiarum Mariae Auxiliatricis. Po-
sitio super virtutibus. Summarium Super Dubio, Romae, Typis Guerra et Belli 1934, p. 60. This
text will be cited as Summarium in subsequent references; F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Maz-
zarello… I, p. 27.
24 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p.41.
25 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 40.
26 M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All Time… p. 64; see G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 88.
27 The PUDMI was a lay association begun under the initative of Angela Maccagno

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Maria Domenica Mazzarello and the question of literacy 313
part of the structure of the group’s weekly meetings.28 One of the tasks of this
group was to assist mothers in the formation of their children. Each member
of the PUDMI was assigned a group of five mothers. At the regular meetings
there was “a short reading from a prescribed book [which was followed by]
explanations if needed and suitable applications” given by the leader.29
When she began her work with youth Maria was keen to assist them in
their spiritual formation. Maria Pia Giudici documents that Maria helped them
to appreciate worth-while books “the best available at the time”, in the field of
Christian development.30 When the girls attended Maria’s classes she would
read from meditation or ascetical books.31 On Sundays when she gathered girls
together from the whole village to offer them social and spiritual activities to
occupy their leisure time, she would read edifying stories to them.32 To those
wishing to deepen their spiritual life she would gather every fortnight and
would read passages from ascetical works or lives of the saints.33
(1832-1891) of Mornese and officially approved by the local bishop of that region in 1857. The
members of this association consisted of women who, not wanting or not being allowed to en-
ter a religious congregation or order mainly because of a lack of a dowry, wished to live out their
Christian life with greater commitment while still living at home. The aim of the association was
to give glory to God through one’s own personal perfection and that of setting an example for
others to follow. The specific objectives were as follows: to foster a spiritual union with Jesus
Christ through prayer, worship, study; to obey the spiritual director; to take vows (obedience and
celibacy) annually with permission of spiritual director; to perform charitable works (assist the
sick, instruct mothers and girls); to uphold the association (financially if possible); and defend
the cause of religion. Every Sunday the group met in Maccagno’s house and each encounter fol-
lowed a definite format: spiritual formation (reading from devotional books); community con-
fession of faults; apostolic action-group discussion on how best to be of service to others. In
1848 the Italian peninsula had just experienced its first major war of independence. The State
had confiscated Church property; secret associations sprang up against the Church and religion.
Maccagno’s aim was to try to “reinstate God into the family and the State…”.
28 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 47; Summarium … 1934, p. 62;
E. CERIA, Santa Maria Domenica Mazzarello… p. 16.
29 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 69.
30 M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All … p. 89.
31 E. CERIA, Santa Maria Domenica Mazzarello… pp. 20, 27; SACRA RITUUM CONGREGA-
TIONE, Aquen. Beatificationis ed canonizationis Servae Dei Mariae Dominicae Mazzarello,
Primae superiorissae Instituti Filiarum Mariae Auxiliatricis, Positio super introductione causae.
Summarium super dubio, Romae, Typis Guerra et Mirri 1925, p. 55; ID., Summarium… 1934,
pp. 29, 38, 104.
32 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, pp. 101, 103; Summarium… 1934,
pp. 103, 112.
33 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 103.

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314 Edna Mary Mac Donald
2. Socio-cultural and politico-religious context
The above exposition points to the fact that the literature Maria assimi-
lated was mainly of a spiritual and ascetical nature. The justification for what
is an overemphasis on the “spiritual” rests on a number of factors. These in-
clude the fact that Maria was situated within the sociocultural boundaries of
nineteenth century Italian peasantry and the prevailing traditions of the
Roman Catholic Church: close family ties; distinct gender roles; frugal
lifestyle; intense Christian devotional practices; loyalty to the Church in its
defence of the Papacy; adherence to Church doctrine and morals that con-
flicted with emerging secular ideologies.34 Following the principles of the
Catholic Church the education of women in particular meant Christian educa-
tion. The role women were to play as good Christians was that of obedience
and service within the confines of the home.35
Maria’s upbringing matched the traditions afforded women of her social
status in a patriarchal society. She was strongly influenced by her father and
the local clergy.36 It was Pestarino who supplied Maria with most of the books
during her adolescent years 37 and trained Maria in ascetical practices 38. When
Maria did have her own financial resources she continued to purchase books
which fostered the doctrinal, moral and ascetical practices advocated by the
Catholic Church for women.39
Jean E. Howard affirms that many clergymen during the nineteenth century
tried to prevent women from being educated.40 This was not the case with
Pestarino. In 1858 the local municipal council, composed of clergy and lay men
(Pestarino was a member), inaugurated a school in Mornese for girls.41 Young
women, Maria included, attended classes at this school on Sundays.42 The
CIDMHC mention that one of the text books studied was a bible history book.43
The above innovation for women in Mornese did not dispute that the Catholic
34 M. E. POSADA, Giuseppe Frassinetti e Maria D. Mazzarello: Rapporto storico-spiri-
tuale. Roma, LAS 1986, pp. 74-8,94.
35 O. CHADWICK, The Popes and European Revolution. Oxford, Clarendon Press 1981,
pp. 11-13.
36 E. CERIA, Santa Maria Domenica Mazzarello… p. 4; M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All
Time… p. 16.
37 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, pp. 33, 41.
38 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, pp. 21-4.
39 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 181.
40 Jean E. HOWARD, Feminism and the question of history: restituating the debate, in
“Womens Studies” 19 (1991) 2, 152.
41 P. CAVAGLIÀ, Educazione e cultura per la donna… p. 67.
42 D. AGASSO, Maria Mazzarello… p. 24.
43 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 78.

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Maria Domenica Mazzarello and the question of literacy 315
Church taught its faithful to be submissive to the instructions and counsels of the
clergy. “Father Pestarino recognized the chosen soul [Maria Mazzarello] God had
sent him so he took special care to form her according to the heart of God…The
two girls [Maria and Petronilla] had great confidence in Father Pestarino and
did nothing of consequence without first consulting him.” 44 Pestarino saw as his
responsibility the care of Maria’s “soul”and Maria saw as her duty to comply.
3. A list and an orientation
What are the known books Maria read? The list will never be complete.
While writers expand on specific texts, they state that she read other spiritual
works which are never identified.45 I have divided the known literature into four
groups: 1) writings she assimilated on her own as a teenager and young adult; 2)
texts used by the PUDMI; 3) books she employed in her work with youth, and 4)
literature regarding her involvement as the congregational leader of the IDMHC.
3.1 Maria’s first library
The earliest known book Maria was acquainted with was the catechism 46
first studied in her preadolescent years.47 There are numerous references
regarding Maria’s desire to study and have others study the catechism.48
Frequent mention is made of the times Maria taught the catechism in her
youth and adult life, applying its contents to the lives of her audience.49
Maccono enumerates the books Maria read during the intervals from
work in the fields: The Eternal Maxims and The Practice of the Love of
Jesus Christ by St. Alphonsus de Liguori (1696-1787) 50, The Spiritual
44 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, pp. 21, 112.
45 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, pp. 33, 41, 44, 69; Summarium… 1934, pp. 38,60; F.
MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 40,47,69; M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All Time…
pp. 64, 89; E. CERIA, Santa Maria Domenica Mazzarello… pp. 16, 27.
46 The catechism in question is Catechismo Romano: adattato alla diocesi di Aqui by
Monsignor Sappa printed in the mid-nineteenth century.
47 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I p. 20; L. CASTANO, Madre Mazzarello… p. 26.
48 M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All Time… p. 165; F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarel-
lo… I, p. 11, 296; Maria SOMAGLIA, Santa Maria D. Mazzarello: Confondatrice delle Figlie di
Maria Ausiliatrice Salesiane di Don Bosco. Torino, SEI 1951, p. 21; Summarium… 1934, p. 28.
49 M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All Time… p. 91-2; F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Maz-
zarello… I, p. 11, 18, 28, 184-5; Summarium… 1934, pp. 22, 107, 112.
50 Alfonso Maria De’ LIGUORI, Apparecchio alla morte: cioè considerazioni sulle mas-
sime eterne utili a tutti per meditare e a sacerdoti per predicare, in Opere 7 Napoli: S. Giorgio
dei Genovesi 1871 pp. 1-146; ID., Pratica di amar Gesù Cristo, in Opere ascetiche I, Roma,
Redentoristi 1933 pp. 1-243.

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316 Edna Mary Mac Donald
Diary 51 and The Imitation of Christ 52 by Thomas à Kempis (c1379-1471).53
He does not mention where or from whom Maria obtained these books.
Giudici mentions the same books stating that these formed the bulk of her
library.54 Domenico Agasso cites the books of Liguori and The Imitation of
Christ as books she carried with her to work. Agasso leaves out The Spiritual
Diary and adds Esercizio di perfezione e virtù cristiane 55 by Alphonsus
Rodriguez (1526-1616) and the lives of the saints. Agasso comments that
Pestarino gave her other texts which came to him from time to time.56
While convalescing from typhoid fever the CIDMHC record that two bi-
ographies of young women, Rosina Pedemonte and Rosa Cordone written by
Giuseppe Frassinetti (1804-1868) 57, were “Mary’s ordinary reading during
these days and were her companions, comfort and instructors”.58 The
CIDMHC also cite another book by Frassinetti read at this time, an ascetical
work, Industrie Spirituali,59 and notes that she read it continually till she
knew it by heart.60 Giudici cites the same biographical texts but makes no
mention of the aforementioned ascetical literature.61
51 The Spiritual Diary is a book comprising spiritual, moral, ascetical and devotional
practices anonymously published for the first time in Naples during the eighteenth century. It
has been re-edited many times up to the beginning of the twentieth century. Many editors re-
elaborated the work during the nineteenth century making their own additions and reorgansing
the content. The closest edition located in reference to Maria Mazzarello is dated 1878. Diario
spirituale che comprende una scelta di detti e fatti de’ santi adattati ad incitare le anime al-
l’acquisto della perfezione ed i loro direttori a condurvele. Coll’aggiunta di un’utilissima ap-
pendice [sulla pratica dell’umiltà e della carità fraterna, della confidenza nelle tentazioni e
nelle aridità di spirito], a cura di Giacinto Marietti. Torino, Tipografia Librario, 1878
52 There is no official documentation which attributes the authorship of The Imitation of
Christ to Thomas à Kempis since he was both a copyist and a writer. Many scholars agree to a
high degree of probability that he was the author of the text in question, others continue to de-
bate the issue of authorship. For a comparative textual analysis between The Imitation of Christ
and Thomas à Kempis’ devotional treatises see M.J. POHL, Thomae Hemerken a Kempis,
Opera omnia, 7 vols. Friberg 1902-1922.
53 F. MACCONO, St. Mary D. Mazzarello… I, 36.
54 M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All Time… p. 29.
55 Alphonsus RODRIGUEZ, The Practice of Christian and Religious Perfection. 3 vols.
Translated from the French. Dublin, James Duffy and Sons 1882.
56 D. AGASSO, Maria Mazzarello… p. 15.
57 Giuseppe FRASSINETTI, Il modello della povera fanciulla Rosina Pedemonte morta in
Genova in età di 20 anni il dì 30 gennaio del 1860. Torino, G. B. Paravia e compagnia 1860;
ID., La rosa senza spine: memorie sulla vita della pia zitella Rosa Cordone morta in Genova ai
26 novembre 1858. 3a edizione, Tipografia e libreria salesiana 1882.
58 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 87.
59 G. FRASSINETTI, Industrie spirituali, in Opere ascetiche I, a cura di Giordano Renzi.
Roma, Postulazione Generale F. S. M. I. 1978, pp. 97-134.
60 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 88.
61 M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All Time… pp. 64-5.

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Maria Domenica Mazzarello and the question of literacy 317
3.2 Maria’s reading material regarding her option
for an ascetic life “in the world”
With reference to books used at the meetings of the PUDMI, the first to
mention is its rule or constitution. It was first printed in 1859 by Frassinetti 62
and members were to read an article of the rule at each meeting. The
CIDMHC note that Maria was able to have a copy of her own.63 In 1861 the
rule was revised 64 and the CIDMHC record that it was probable that Maria
was eager to study the new rule to find out how it differed from the old.65
Most biographers give a detailed description of the compilation of the rule
and its subsequent development.66 Known texts used during the weekly gath-
erings were The Nun in Her Own Home by Frassinetti 67, The Practice of
Christian and Religious Perfection already cited and the life of St. Teresa of
Avila (1515-1582) 68. The CIDMHC assert that the group discussed the above
texts in order to gain a better understanding of their contents and apply them
to their Union.69 The CIDMHC make mention of the fact that Maria memor-
ised the maxims of St. Teresa.70
Maccono cites the book by Rodriquez as read by the PUDMI and adds one
62 G. FRASSINETTI, Regola della Pia Unione delle Figlie di santa Maria Immacolata. Ap-
pendice I La Monaca in Casa, in Opere ascetiche II, a cura di Giordano Renzi. Roma, Postu-
lazione Generale F. S. M. I. 1978, pp. 66-74.
63 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 79.
64 G. FRASSINETTI, Regole delle Figlie di santa Maria Immacolata sotto la protezione di
s. Orsola e di s. Angela Merici. “[s.l.; s.e.; s.d.]”.
65 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, pp. 95-7.
66 E. CERIA, Santa Maria Domenica Mazzarello… pp. 14-5; F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D.
Mazzarello… I, pp. 42-5; G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, pp. 53-8, 95-7; M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman
for All Time… pp. 36-9; L. CASTANO, Madre Mazzarello… pp. 43-8; D. AGASSO, Maria Maz-
zarello… pp. 17-20, 30-1.
67 G. FRASSINETTI, La Monaca in casa, in Opere ascetiche II, a cura di Giordano Renzi.
Roma, Postulazione Generale F. S. M. I. 1978, pp. 1-66.
68 There is no clear indication as to which life of Teresa was read. It is probable that the
women of the PUDMI read an autobiographical account of Teresa’s life in a format adapted for
popular reading.
69 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 68.
70 Ibid., p. 100; TERESA OF JESUS, Maxims of St. Teresa, in Minor Works of St. Teresa:
Conceptions of the Love of God, Exclamations, Maxims and Poems of Saint Teresa of Jesus.
Translated from the Spanish by the Benedictines of Stanbrook. Revised with notes and an in-
troduction by Benedict Zimmerman. London, Burns Oates, pp. 154-160. In this edition Zim-
merman explains that a collection of sixty-nine short sentences attributed to Teresa appeared
under the title of Avisos de la Madre Teresa de Jesús in the first edition of The Way of Perfec-
tion published by Don Teutonio de Braganza, Archbishop of Evora, at the request of Teresa
herself in 1583, shortly after her death. Neither the publication itself nor the correspondence of
Teresa contains any indication as to whether the manuscript of these advices or maxims was
supplied to the editor by Teresa, or whether he obtained it from a different source.

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318 Edna Mary Mac Donald
of Liguori’s The Holy Nun 71. Luigi Càstano makes reference only to the book
by Frassinetti.72 The PUDMI also distributed literature. The CIDMHC record
that the Union bought one hundred copies of A Girl Who Wants to Belong Com-
pletely to Jesus 73, by Frassinetti and dispersed them around the neighbourhood.74
Giudici remarks that Maria used this book with the girls she educated.75 Agas-
so numbers it among the most read books of Frassinetti in Mornese.76
Maccono refers to some of the books used during the meetings with the
mothers by the PUDMI, Spiritual Friendships by Frassinetti 77 and The Prac-
tice of the Love of Jesus Christ already quoted. He notes that every member of
the PUDMI possessed a copy of Spiritual Friendships.78 Giudici cites the same
two books utilised for the same purpose.79 Agasso includes the text Spiritual
Friendships in a list of the most popular books written by Frassinetti.80
The CIDMHC also record that Maria enjoyed reading about the spread
of the PUDMI. There were already foundations in Chiavari and Cremona, in
the province of Lombardy, Italy.81
3.3 Maria selects her reading material for youth
There are a variety of texts which Maria used for the Christian education
of girls. Some are those employed by the PUDMI and others, those of her
own choice. Maccono records The Little Garden of Mary by Frassinetti 82 as
an ascetical work chosen by Maria to promote virtue in the young.83 In an ex-
tensive study of the influence of Frassinetti on the spirituality of Maria Maz-
71 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, pp. 43, 45. The correct title is The True
Spouse of Jesus Christ. A. De LIGUORI, The True Spouse of Jesus Christ, in The Complete
Ascetical Works of St. Alphonsus de Liguori. X-XI of 22 Vols. Edited by Eugene Grimm.
Second edition revised. Brooklyn, Redemptorist Fathers 1929.
72 L. CASTANO, Madre Mazzarello… p. 47.
73 G. FRASSINETTI, Ricordi per una figlia che vuol essere tutta di Gesù, in Opere
ascetiche I, a cura di Giacinto Renzi. Roma, Postulazione Generale F. S. M. I. 1978, pp. 637-45.
74 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… p. 181.
75 M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All Time… p. 95.
76 D. AGASSO, Maria Mazzarello… p. 16.
77 G. FRASSINETTI, Le amicizie spirituali: imitazione da Santa Teresa di Gesù. Torino,
Tipografia e libreria dell’Oratorio di S. Francisco di Sales 1875.
78 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 46.
79 M. P. GIUDICI, A Woman for All Time… p. 46.
80 D. AGASSO, Maria Mazzarello… p. 16.
81 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 87.
82 G. FRASSINETTI, Il giardinetto di Maria, in Opere ascetiche II, a cura di Giacinto
Renzi. Roma, Postulazione Generale F. S. M. I., 1978, pp. 455-62.
83 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 104; see G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I,
p. 124; Summarium… 1934, p. 30.

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Maria Domenica Mazzarello and the question of literacy 319
zarello, Maria Esther Posada 84 states that Frassinetti encouraged parish
priests to use the following texts written by him for the formation the faithful
particularly in their devotion to the Mother of God: Amiamo Gesù; Amiamo
Maria; Il Giardinetto di Maria; Ora di santa allegrezza ossia divozione di
cento allegrezze ad onore della B. Vergine Maria ed orazioni; Via Matris 85. It
can be assumed that Maria read the above, since Pestarino was in constant
contact with Frassinetti and both promoted the distribution of Catholic litera-
ture. Mary’s readiness to use the above material can be deduced from a testi-
mony from the summarium, “…ci leggeva o ci narrava degli exempi di virtù
e della vita della Madonna”.86
The CIDMHC state that during the day Maria read to the girls from the
biographies of Pedemonte and Cordone, texts already cited, and the life of St.
Aloysius Gonzaga (1568-1591).87 The records state that she read other pop-
ular booklets of Frassinetti. There is no mention of what these texts are.88
Posada makes references to books Frassinetti wrote and promoted for the for-
mation of girls which Pestarino would have obtained for Maria and others in-
terested in the education of youth. These books are: La gemma delle fanciulle
Christiane: ossia la santa virginità; L’arte di farsi santi; Vita dell’Istituto di
S. Angela Merici; Due gioie nascoste.89 One of the above books is noted in
the CIDMHC. The records state that at the end of the day Maria “…usually
read a page of Maxims for Eternity by Saint Alphonsus Marie de’ Liguori or
84 M. E. POSADA, Storia e santità… 1986 p. 79.
85 G. FRASSINETTI, Amiamo Gesù, in Opere ascetiche I, a cura di Giacinto Renzi. Roma,
Postulazione Generale F. S. M. I. 1978, pp. 429-45; ID., Amiamo Maria, in Opere ascetiche II a
cura di Giacinto Renzi. Roma, Postulazione Generale F. S. M. I. 1978, pp. 339-50; ID., Ora di
santa allegrezza ossia divozioni di cento allegrezze ad onore della beatissima vergine, in Opere
ascetiche II, a cura di Giacinto Renzi. Roma, Postulazione Generale F. S. M. I. 1978, pp. 411-
21; ID., Via Matris, in Opere ascetiche II, a cura di Giacinto Renzi. Roma, Postulazione
Generale F. S. M. I., 1978, pp. 351-61.
86 Summarium… 1934, 112; see also G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 20.
87 The most widely used and reprinted books of this saint were those of Virgilio Cepari
and Antonio Cesari. Since Mornese was geographically located near Genoa, the work of
Alessandro Maineri could also have been circulating. Virgilio CEPARI, Vita del beato Luigi
Gonzaga della Compagnia di Gesù. Roma, Luigi Zannetti, 1604; Alessandro MAINERI, Vita di
S. Luigi Gonzaga della Compagnia di Gesù. Genova, N. e P. Scionico 1734; Antonio CESARI,
Vita breve di S. Luigi Gonzaga scritta novellamente. Verona, Tipografia Paolo Libanti 1823.
88 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 103; see F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello…
I, p. 103.
89 M.E. POSADA, Storia e santità… p. 78; G. FRASSINETTI, La gemma delle fanciulle
cristiane ossia la santa verginità, in Opere ascetiche I, a cura di Giacinto Renzi. Roma, Postu-
lazione Generale: F. S. M. I. 1978 pp. 505-42; ID., L’arte di farsi santi, in Opere ascetiche I, a
cura di Giacinto Renzi. Roma, Postulazione Generale F. S. M. I. 1978, pp. 83-90; ID., Due
gioie nascoste, in Opere ascetiche I a cura di Giacinto Renzi. Roma, Postulazione Generale
F. S. M. I. 1978, pp. 619-36.; ID., Vita dell’Istituto di S. Angela Merici. Torino, Tipografia del-
l’Oratorio di S. Francesco di Sales 1863.

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320 Edna Mary Mac Donald
The Art of Becoming Saints by Frassinetti…”.90 Readings from For a Girl
Who Wants to Belong All to Jesus by Frassinetti became a daily occurrence.91
There are testimonies in the Summarium which state that Maria and her com-
panions read from “…qualche buon libro principalmente di S. Teresa”.92 This
implies that Maria could have read not only the life of Teresa to the girls but
some of Teresa’s other works.
At meetings for teenagers who wished to deepen their spiritual life
Maria would read “...a passage from the life of St. Teresa or The Practice of
the Love of Jesus Christ or some other spiritual book…”.93 The only recorded
work by a woman besides Teresa of Avila which Maria read is Guide and
Nourishment for the Piety of Young Women by Elizabeth Girelli (1839-
1919).94 This ascetical work was in circulation among the PUDMI. It was
written for the Christian formation of young women of the working class.95
3.4 Maria’s approach to reading as congregational leader
The gradual interaction of Maria, Petronilla and their other companions
with Don Bosco’s educational system and spirituality put them into contact
with literature specifically written and promoted by Don Bosco (1815-1888).
Around 1863, just a year after Maria began to hear about Don Bosco’s work,
Pestarino gave her a manual of piety, The Companion of Youth 96 written and
printed by Bosco in 1847. The CIDMHC record that Maria wanted to read it to
the girls.97 Petronilla testified that after the new congregation was formed, the
women religious and girls all “said prayers similar to those found in the Com-
panion of Youth of Don Bosco”.98 There are other works of Bosco documented
in the CIDMHC. It is not explicitly stated that Maria read them: The Wonders
of the Mother of God, invoked under the title of Mary Help of Christians 99,
90 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 118.
91 Ibid. p. 128.
92 see summarium… 1925, 22.
93 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 112.
94 Elisabetta GIRELLI, Indirizzo e pascolo alla pietà delle giovani. Riveduto ed ampliato
da brevi meditazioni per un intero mese. XXIV Edizione. Brescia, Tipografia e libreria
vescovile queriniana 1896. Elizabeth Girelli was born in Brescia in the province of Lombardy,
Italy. She wrote extensively particularly for the Christian formation of young women. In 1866
Girelli was responsible, with her sister Magdalene, for restoring in Brescia the Company of St.
Ursola whose foundation resides with St. Angela Merici (1474-1540). Girelli knew of the
structure of the PUDMI and wanted to establish it in her locality.
95 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 235.
96 Giovanni BOSCO, Il giovane provveduto, in Opere Edite II. Roma, LAS 1976, pp. 183-532.
97 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 126.
98 Ibid. p. 286.
99 Ibid. p. 206.

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Maria Domenica Mazzarello and the question of literacy 321
The Companion of Catholics: Practical Piety with Suitable Advice According
to the Needs of the Time 100, The Crown of Virginity and The Young Christian
Girl.101
What is clear in relation to Maria reading Bosco’s works centres on the
gradual development of the rule or constitution that would govern the
IDMHC. In 1867 Bosco gave Maria and Petronilla a little notebook.102 It con-
tained a schedule or rule handwritten by Bosco for them and for the girls.103
In the summer of 1871 a manuscript 104 written by Bosco was given to Pes-
tarino containing the first draft of the rule of the new Institute. Maria and the
other women of her group began to apply the rule to themselves. In January,
1872 that manuscript was presented to everyone in the PUDMI.105 Every
member was to read it to ascertain whether she wanted to embrace the new
religious congregation of women founded by Bosco for the welfare of girls of
the working classes or remain within the structures of the PUDMI. On Jan-
uary 23, 1876, three and a half years after the IDMHC was established, a de-
cree was issued by the local bishop, Monsignor Sciandra, giving full approval
of the constitutions.106 By 1878 the first printing of the constitutions was
made.107 Bosco was the author of the aforesaid rule in its various stages of
100 Ibid. p. 207.
101 Ibid. pp. 244-5. The Wonders of the Mother of God, invoked under the title of Mary
Help of Christians was a pamphlet Don Bosco had worked on himself and printed in his Let-
ture Cattoliche in May 1868 which coincided with the dedication of the Basilica of Mary Help
of Christians he built in Turin. During that same period he put on sale a book he had worked on
for several years, The Companion of Catholics: Practical Piety with Suitable Advice According
to the Needs of the Times. In the 1871 August edition of Letture Cattoliche he printed the
booklet The Crown of Virginity, an Italian translation of an anonymous French author of the fif-
teenth century regarding the specific practice of the virtues of purity, humility, charity, pa-
tience, faith, obedience and constancy. The following issue in September carried the work The
Young Christian Girl, literature offered to girls regarding their relationship with God and
neighbour and norms relating to study, order and politeness.
102 The manuscript has not been preserved. Petronilla Mazzarello remembered the basic
structure of its contents. It outlined the schedule of prayer, work and recreation for each day. At
the end of this daily timetable were various counsels on one’s relationship with God and one
another especially when dealing with youth.
103 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 137; G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria…
pp. 220-1; summarium… 1934, 96.
104 For a full exposition of this manuscript see Appendix 11, in G. CAPETTI, Cronis-
toria… I, pp. 335-53.
105 Ibid. pp. 245-7, 267-70; F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 141-3; M. P.
GIUDICI, A Woman for All Time… pp. 129, 133.
106 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 261.
107 Ibid. II, p. 38. For a full historical development and exposition of each draft of the
Constitutions of the Daughters of Mary Help of Christians see Cecilia ROMERO (a cura di),
Costituzioni per l’Istituto delle Figlie di Maria Ausiliatrice (1872-1885). Roma, LAS 1983.

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322 Edna Mary Mac Donald
development 108 and Maria studied and assimilated the contents making the
observations she felt appropriate.109 As congregational leader of the IDMHC
she read the rule to the women religious and explained the articles in detail.110
Notwithstanding the above, once the congregation was established there
is scant mention of the literature Maria actually read. Other than the Com-
panion of Youth, a prayer book by Carlo Fogliano was used, A Little Book of
Treasures: The Devout Daughter of Jesus in the Blessed Sacrament and Mary
Most Holy and Seeking Her Own Perfection.111 There is indirect reference to
an ascetical practice of Frassinetti, the Twelve Stars 112, introduced by Maria
among the boarders at the school.113 Maria still interested herself in distrib-
uting literature to youth. One of the girls of the school recalls that Maria sent
her a rosary with a message that she should treasure it. The message also
urged her to read and meditate on the Imitation of Christ.114 On another
occasion Maria gave a young woman a book to read by Alphonsus de
Liguori, L’Apparecchio alla Morte.115
108 For the first draft of the Constitutions of the Daughters of Mary Help of Christians
Bosco sought the advice of the congregational leader of the Sisters of St. Anne of [Divine]
Providence, Mother Enrichetta Dominici. Bosco sent the Salesian rules to her and asked her to
adapt the rules of her own congregation and that of the Salesian Society into a draft copy as the
new rules for the IDMHC. Dominici entrusted the task to Sr. Frances Carelli, Dominici’s secre-
tary. Garelli’s original draft was not the one given to Pestarino by Bosco in the summer of
1871. The handwriting of the manuscript of the first draft does not correspond to Garelli’s. It is
presumed that Bosco had Garelli’s work transcribed by another person and used as the basis for
the new rules for the IDMHC. The original draft of the 1871 Consititutions of the Daughters of
Mary Help of Christians, still in existence today, has many corrections, additions and cancela-
tions throughout the document. In 1875, three years after the foundation of the IDMHC Bosco
with two other Salesians, John Cagliero and James Costamagna revised the rules. The
CIDMHC record the words of Costamagna of that event. He was speaking to the women reli-
gious of Mornese when he returned from the meeting with Bosco at Ovada. “I read them [man-
uscript draft] for him [Bosco], article by article; he corrected, developed, added; then I read the
new version to him. Now your Rules correspond more than ever to the Salesian spirit. You will
see”. The revised edition was approved by the local bishop, Giuseppe Maria Sciandra, on 23
January, 1876. On 3 September, 1879 the women of the IDMHC received the first printed copy
of the rules which was printed in the previous year. There were no substantial alterations of the
text Bosco had revised in 1875.
109 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, p. 143.
110 Ibid. p. 319.
111 Ibid. p. 116. The English translation of the Chronicles mentions two prayer books. The
translator interpreted the Italian title and subtitle as two books. In the Italian edition only one book
is named, Carlo FOGLIANO, Un libretto ed un tesoro: ossia la figlia divota di Gesù sacramentato
e di Maria Santissima e amante della propria perfezione. Torino, Libreria Salesiana 1880.
112 G. FRASSINETTI, Le dodici stelle: ossia le virtù della B. V. Maria, in Opere ascetiche
II. Roma, Postulazione Generale: F. S. M. I. 1978, pp. 423-34.
113 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… II, p. 309.
114 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… I, p. 185.
115 Ibid. II, p. 129. This book is cited in footnote 50.

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Maria Domenica Mazzarello and the question of literacy 323
The most numerous references to literature in this period rest with a
magazine initiated by Don Bosco in 1877 – a monthly publication informing
people of religious issues and of “matters Salesian”, the Salesian Bulletin 116.
It is obvious that a subscription was taken out by Maria because of the freq-
uent references made by the CIDMHC to this magazine.117 There are explicit
references where Maria read certain articles and commented on them to
others.118 Maria also referred to Catholic Readings 119 but there is no docu-
mented evidence that she read extensively from this source.120 Maccono notes
that Maria wanted the young women joining the new congregation to be pro-
ficient in religious studies 121 but there is no mention of individual texts in ref-
erence to the above. In reference to scholastic texts the CIDMHC outline the
subjects taught to the students but there is no mention of the specific texts.122
In a letter written to John Cagliero Maria wrote of her desire to learn the
Spanish language and asked for the appropriate texts.123
There are two main reasons why there is a decrease in the known texts
Maria read during the last decade of her life. Firstly, reading in religious insti-
tutes of women and men during the nineteenth century was strictly employed
to foster asceticism and was a communal activity.124 Meditation, spiritual
reading and readings at meals in silence were read by one person. Secondly,
there would have been little time for Maria to devote to personal reading as
she had done as a young adult since her role as congregational leader of a
new congregation involved travelling extensively to establish new centres and
maintain existing ones, taking on the responsibility for the formation, direct-
ion and placement of personnel, managing the administration of the congre-
gation and interacting constantly with civil and ecclesiastical authorities.
116 Today the Salesian Bulletin is published in 45 nations and in 19 different languages.
The Italian edition is linked via World Wide Web: http://www.sdb.org
117 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… II, pp. 302, 316, 365, 368-71; III, pp. 2, 4,
35-7, 48, 51, 55-6, 60, 77, 128, 171, 175, 189, 200, 203, 220, 238, 258, 279-80, 311, 316
118 Ibid. III, pp. 72, 171.
119 Catholic Readings was a journal begun in 1852 and edited by Don Bosco to promote
Catholic literature among the Christian masses.
120 F. MACCONO, Saint Mary D. Mazzarello… III, p. 121.
121 Ibid. p. 184.
122 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… III, pp. 431-2.
123 M. E. POSADA, et al, La sapienza della vita: Lettere di Maria Domenica Mazzarello.
Torino, SEI 1994, p. 70.
124 Alison WEBER, Teresa of Avila and the Rhetoric of Femininity. Princeton, Princeton
University Press 1990, p. 102.

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324 Edna Mary Mac Donald
4. Conclusion
4.1 Contemporary and classical literature
All of the documents quoted above do not concord with each other as to
the exact date or circumstance in which Maria Mazzarello received, read or
promoted the specified literature. There is an overall agreement regarding the
variety of texts familiar to her. Texts she assimilated in early adulthood were
the literature she promoted as an adult. All of these designated works reveal
that Maria was kept abreast not only with the latest literature in the field of
Christian advancement proper to her sex and class, Guide and Nourishment
for the Piety of Young Women, but that she assimilated classical material, the
Imitation of Christ, and voluminous ascetical works, The Practice of Christ-
ian and Religious Life. Maria’s gamut of literature not only encompassed
material written by popular writers of the day (Frassinetti and Bosco) but
centred on works written by women and men officially proclaimed by the
highest authority of the Catholic Church as “doctors” in matters theological
and spiritual (Teresa of Avila and Alphonsus de Liguori).
The research discloses that Maria cannot be considered illiterate in the
strict sense of the term. The reading skills she acquired enabled her to make
her own interpretations of texts at a much deeper level than Lemoyne, Cav-
iglia or Mainetti were prepared to acknowledge. There are several instances
documenting not only the literature Maria read but the fact that she would in-
terpret what she read to others.125 Reading became an internalisation process.
Maccono records, “From this activity [spiritual reading] she learned the great
maxims of the spiritual masters, which enabled her to direct herself and her
spiritual daughters”.126
There is no question that Maria Mazzarello synthesised in her own right
what she considered the components of the Christian and religious life for
women within her milieu. Before examining how this is manifest in her corres-
pondence, it is necessary to engage in a study of nineteenth century Italian
spirituality both of a general and specific nature. The former undertaking al-
lows an investigation into the distinctive characteristics of spirituality oper-
ating within the structures of the Italian Catholic Church of that century. The
latter determines what aspects of those characteristics are evident in the Maria
Mazzarello correspondence, which ones are omitted, and highlight trends
within her correspondence which are not prevalent in nineteenth century
125 G. CAPETTI, Cronistoria… I, pp. 37, 68-9, 118, 122, III, p. 171; F. MACCONO, Saint
Mary D. Mazzarello… I, pp. 87, 112.
126 Ibid. p. 37.

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Maria Domenica Mazzarello and the question of literacy 325
Italian spirituality. It is necessary to examine all these aspects which will
provide the means to uncover the liberating as well as the constraining forces
evident in Maria Mazzarello’s correspondence.
4.2 Three areas of exploration
From a historical and political perspective there is need to critically ques-
tion and examine the tenets of nineteenth century Italian Catholic spirituality
and ask whose interests did it serve. In relation to the above I maintain that
three specific areas need exploration. Firstly, the contemporary sense of the un-
ity and equality of the Christian call to holiness (Lumen Gentium) inevitably
calls into question the clerical and monastic elitism present in nineteenth cen-
tury spirituality. There is need to retrieve those groups or traditions which offer
some kind of historical model for lay life and for women’s roles in the Chris-
tian community. Only nine of Maria’s forty-four years of life were spent as a
member of a religious congregation. There is need to heighten her contribution
to the spirituality of the laity as well as her role as congregational leader of the
IDMHC and in doing so the role and status of women in the Catholic Church.
Secondly, and related in some respects to the equality of Christians, there
is a sociocultural perspective which leads one to ask who “lost out” in history
and how the process took place. Such a position examines ways in which spiri-
tualities encapsulate particular sociocultural, as well as religious, values. Para-
mount to any reflections about Maria Mazzarello is the continual allusion to
Don Bosco. While I do not deny a significant influence of Don Bosco upon
Maria’s life and spirituality, I maintain that, as well as academic studies on the
significant relationship between the two figures, other influences of her spirit-
uality should have equal scholarly consideration such as the study of the asce-
tic literature Maria Mazzarello read. This is a major argument in this paper.
Thirdly, the contemporary interest in the wisdom of the past, as the
source of insights into the spiritual journey of individuals and groups, means
that there is need to develop an appropriate theory of interpretation in order to
re-read classical spiritual texts in a helpful as well as an accurate manner. I
identify the ascetical literature Maria read and her own writings, her corres-
pondence, as spiritual classics for the women who follow her tradition. Philip
Sheldrake defines such material as “wisdom documents” and states, “The
value of a [spiritual] classical text is not so much that it bridges the gap be-
tween the present and a normative past as that it makes the presence of divine
truth accessible to our world.” 127
127 Philip SHELDRAKE, Spirituality and History, Questions of Interpretation and Method.
New York, Crossroad. 1992, p. 164.

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326 Edna Mary Mac Donald
Insights into past spiritual treatises have value precisely in the degree
that they dispose people who read them to respond to God’s self-communica-
tion in the present. In reference to the literature Maria read and its correlation
to her correspondence I am not only looking for her original intention but al-
lowing myself to be transformed in the present by an imaginative use of her
works. Her correspondence articulates something distinctive about Catholic
identity and provides a source of precedents against which my present inter-
pretation can be made. I am not dealing with two quite disconnected mom-
ents, the historical moment of her writing the letters and her interpretation of
what she read and my moment in reading them. Any two moments are linked
as well as separated by what comes between them. In this continuum, or the
continual formation of tradition, I receive not only Maria’s interpretation of
what she read through her letters but also its subsequent history and the effect
of that on my moment of reading. I cannot escape from history into timeless
truth. History opens up new possibilities to dialogue with it. Without ignoring
the historical context, a subsequent study to this paper is to reveal new and
richer truths which Maria never knew, by bringing the text of her corres-
pondence and the literature she read into contact with new questions. In
putting questions to the text, they are, in turn, reshaped by the text itself.
Maria Mazzarello’s correspondence is not a timeless moment that demands
mere repetition but a constant reinterpretation where I question and listen
within my own historical circumstances.